Geography of Time Essay

The seventh chapter â€Å"Health, Wealth, Happiness and Charity† discusses why some places are faster than others, what countries are more ready to help unknown people in need, etc. The question is where people are healthier, happier and more charitable. The author starts his research from assuming that slower people are healthier than faster. When people work harder and have less leisure they may be more subjected to health and psychological problems in contrast to people who relax more. It is argued that social well-being of community is also involved. The author says that the heart patients in waiting rooms seem to be tenser than others. Moreover, some people are constantly living self-imposed mindset of chronic tension. It means that some people tend to create problems when they are not present and feel depressed trying to solve them. It is also found that people suffering from coronary disease are characterized by time urgency, hostility and competitiveness. Therefore, faster place are characterized by increased death rates and heart attacks. The study examined 31 different countries and 36 cities in the United States. The results show that there is a strong correlation between pace of life and heart disease. Further, the author described a paradox. He writes that â€Å"people in faster places are more prone to suffer coronary heart disease, but they are also more likely to be happier with their lives†. (p. 158) Divorce rates are higher in individualistic nations, but marital satisfaction is high as well. Pace of life is claimed to have important implications for the way people are ready to take care of other people, strangers, etc. People in fast cities are less likely to help strangers in need. Moreover, people in fast cities prove to be less civilian than people in slower cities. The author concludes that fast pace of life makes people capable to find time for others. Despite less free time for relaxing and leisure fast citizens try to find time to devote to families and to help others. The eights chapter â€Å"Japan’s Contradiction† analyzes relations between coronary disease rates and a rapid pace of life in Japan. Japanese lifestyle is defined as workaholism as Japanese people have the longest working day and have the least time to relax. Japanese pace of life is the most demanding on the earth and Japanese workers work quickly and they work a lot. Japanese people have fewer vacations and they tend to avoid dread retirement. The highest reward in Japan is to be allowed to work after retirement age. Japanese workers are not bothering about Blue Mondays and, therefore, they are more likely to have psychological problems and to be inflicted afflicted with ‘Sunday Disease’. The author writes that â€Å"the magnitude of Japanese dedication to work can be dazzling†. (p. 170) Nowadays government is even trying to make people work less and to have more time for leisure. Government policy aims at making people slow down. Further, the author explains: â€Å"For the nations’ domestic market t pick up, which the government says it must, a rise in consumer spending is a must†. (p. 170) It means that leisure for Japanese workers will be a must. The notorious Japanese aversion is challenging by requirement to take vacations. Government tries to encourage vacations by claiming that taking a vacation is a sign of competence. Nevertheless, workaholism remains Japanese way of life, but the problem is that workaholism is correlated with psychological disorders and increased coronary disease rates. Nevertheless, statistics shows that death from coronary disease is rare case in the country. Cultural values of the country are centered on welfare of the collective as people are devoted to community. Japanese workers aren’t characterized by competitive hostility and anger. Therefore, the author concludes that in contrast to the United States in Japan there are little relations between fast pace of life and coronary disease rates. Time urgency doesn’t contribute to heart attacks and coronary disease.

Essay on Stereotypes ††Example Essay

StereoTypes – Introduction Stereotypes are a part of our everyday life. We hear stereotypes every day and everywhere. Sometimes we can find ourselves in a situation where we make stereotypes for a large group of people. Every person, young or old, is labelled with either positive or negative stereotypes. Stereotyping is a way that people group each other. Each group is called by name, that doesnt really fit to everyone in that specific group. Stereotypes affect people’s social lives, emotions, and how people interact with their environment. There are times that you are not so open to the idea of meeting new people, and making new friends. You don’t want to go outside, because we have put our own set of rules in this world. We know that we get criticized about what we wear every single day! We are criticized in which music we listen to, how we look like, how we act, and who we hang out with. We are also criticized on every other personal trait and imperfection we have. We have put the bar way up high, maybe too high for our potentials. Stereotype Essay – What we really know? We cannot afford all the stereotyping that is going on between us. After we come and we say to people to just be who they are. If we say to a person that he or she is a hippie, just from the way they are dressed, that is just totally wrong. Hippie is someone who rejects the culture, not just the one who has long hair and wears beads. We are using the words in the wrong way. There are many people that have no friends, because they are tired of their critique. Leave everything behind and don’t let stereotypes ruin your social life. Stereotypes have an enormous impact of how we feel. That makes people have no motivation; therefore they won’t have good performance at any level in their life.For instance if a kid is stereotyped as black and obese, how can these words make him feel good, so that he/she can move on to the next level This can create psychological pressure. Other people face stereotypes as a threat. For example there is a stereotype that says that women are bad drivers. It puts even more pressure on how they feel, not only being around people who are labelling them, but being around people that they trust. They will try to prove to them that this is just a stereotype and it does not exist. In addition, this occurs in situations where people worry for their performance and how they look like. Besides that people don’t want their poor performance to lead to negative stereotypes.To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodayMembers of stereotyped groups worry of what they are doing, and this makes them stressed, because they think that they have to be perfect, in all aspects of their lives! People get tired of being criticized all the time. When there is no one able to close people’s mouths, they start to become isolated. In the same way they don’t talk, because they are afraid to say something wrong, so that they won’t look silly. They are afraid of failure. For example, people seem surprised when they see men cry or being emotional. They think that men are not allowed to express their feelings, or men have no feelings at all. Men are not unconscious, they have feelings, but that is just a stereotype and a generalization from our society. It is easy to see that with are actions and sayings we are trying to kill emotions and thoughts! We should learn how to control our feelings and emotions, instead of letting stereotypes control them. In addition, your surroundings can be affected as well. If you had a bad day because someone just stereotyped you, when you go home or to your friends you are going to be really anxious. In addition you would probably get irritated or feel sad at the same time. You just go to your room or sit alone in a corner. When your loved ones see you like that they are not going to feel any better, because your emotions are now in control, and you just pass them around. In other words you broadcast your feelings to others. Furthermore there are times teachers question their students â€Å"Did I create a good environment, so that you can be able to talk and share ideas with the rest of your class?† Well, sometimes teachers cannot change this situation. The only people that can create a comfortable and happy atmosphere are us – the students. They are many stereotypes going in and out of every classroom. That’s why sometimes students can be afraid to share ideas, because before they were stereotyped as nerds. These days’ people are afraid to be themselves, because they fear other people. They don’t want people to think something bad for them. Secrets, thoughts, and ideas, are all held down. Stereotypes can be an obstacle as to how open you are with people and how you make people feel when you are with them! Conclusion Instead of focusing on all the mistakes of each person, we should start paying more attention of how unique each person is. Stereotype causes people to feel lonely and even sometimes depressed. It’s also harmful for their environment and their social life. We should keep stereotypes out of the picture, even though sometimes we can be victims ourselves. Stop judging people before you even get to know them. You may also like reading Dissertation Examples Methodology Essays – Dissertation ExampleTo modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodaySummary Reviewer Admin – Robert Gil Review Date 2017-06-30 Reviewed Item Essay on StereoTypes – Custom Essay Writing – Free Sample Author Rating 5

Fifth Element of Game Theory Essay

As each of the competing companies watchfully study the moves made by the others in the same industry they all belong to, they sometimes end up deciding to just do the best they can to win the biggest share in the market – without spending more time focusing of the others. This direction, when taken by the industry players, results to the occurrence of â€Å"Nash equilibrium. † (Economics 11th Edition by Richard G. Lipsey & Paul N. Courant, UK: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1996) The above graph illustrates the Nash equilibrium and the optimum result that it leads to (Osborne, An Introduction to Game Theory). As opposed to how badly things may end up for the competing players, Nash equilibrium brings in profitable results for everybody. As opposed to getting stuck with the â€Å"prisoner’s dilemma† or the â€Å"pride game†, companies in this scenario have individually opted to stick to the strategies that they believe will work and will hand them the market dominance that will secure their place as the industry leader. Effects of Equilibrium Equilibrium brings balance to the economy – whether long- or short-lived. As a temporary phase that may or may not be maintained, equilibrium occurs when there is no tendency for change in the decisions of the economic entities regarding their products and services, the price and volume that they will supply, and the demand segment that they will target. (Lipsey & Courant 510) Equilibrium comes in different forms as prevailing circumstances vary. â€Å"In the macroeconomic goods market, equilibrium occurs when planned aggregate expenditure is equal to aggregate output. † Thus, the volume that the suppliers has made available in the market is the same volume that buyers will actually buy. Meanwhile, equilibrium in the financial markets is attained when the supply of money is equal to the demand for money (Case & Fair 67). In this setting, qualified borrowers find that there are loans that they can avail. In the same setting, financial institutions are able to use in their operations the idle cash in their coffers – they issue loans to maximize their income from lending activities. Equilibrium has been thoroughly explored as a concept and has been attributed with all kinds of applications arising from distinct circumstances and conclusions. It is not surprising that there evolved a specialized branch of game theory called â€Å"General Equilibrium Theory† which is widely used in analyzing the public and private sectors of the economy. (David Levine website) Freddie Mac in the Game Theory Freddie Mac never had to ward off many competitors in the industry. As one of the two giants –the other one being Fannie Mae – serving the country’s secondary mortgage market, the gaming area has turned out to be definitely spacious. Indeed, there is the entire USA as the territory to be serviced and there come the banks to take care of dealing with them – then there come Freddie Mac, Fanny Mae and Ginny to pour in the needed financial resources. With Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae issuing or guaranteeing a total of $5. 4 trillion in outstanding mortgage debt, these two companies practically make up the entire mortgage industry. Furthermore, they are equipped with all the needed ammunition for winning: Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have indisputable strong points. Due to the implied backing of the United States government, they enjoy virtually unlimited access to the capital markets at funding costs that are below market. They pay no local taxes, only national. Each has enjoyed tremendous growth and profitability. As the biggest issuers of mortgage-backed securities and corporate securities in the world, the biggest buyers and hedgers of the securities in the world, and, not least, the source of liquidity for more than 75% of conventional and conforming home mortgages extended in this country, it could be argued that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac are about as central to the American capital markets as the Treasury Department. (Annaly webstie) (Source: World Socialist website) Indeed, with their coveted roles as providers of a continuing supply of money for the banking institutions engaged in retail lending to the multitudes, Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae own the game. As competitors offering the same products and services, enjoying the same rare privileges and dealing with the same clients, Freddie Mac and Fannie May have consistently been like identical twins – though Fannie May turns out to be decades older than Freddie Mac. With each one of them keen on beating the other, the strategies and packages they resorted to turned out to work for both of them, at least during the booming growth years of the industry. Consistent with the Nash equilibrium concept, a report that came out in the Spring of 2002 showed that fully one-half of 2002’s 1. 2% gain in real GDP growth was brought on by the housing activities across the country. (Annaly website) Freddie Mac and Fannie May have been playing the Nash Equilibrium game. In such a game as theirs, â€Å"players play the best they can given their beliefs, and they have learned all there is to learn about their opponent’s play† (David Levine website). Works Cited Osborne, Martin. An Introduction to Game Theory. Oxford University Press, 2002. Lipsey, Richard & Courant, Paul. Economics 11th Edition. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1996. Case, Karl & Fair, Ray. Principles of Economics 8th Edition. Prentice Hall, 2007. Levine, David. What is Game Theory? Department of Economic, UCLA. 29 October 2008 Annaly. com Website. FAQs on Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, 29 October 2008 World Socialist Web Site. The Importance of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. 29 October 2008

A&P Topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

A&P Topic - Essay Example The use of an extremely low temperature stops every single biochemical process inside the cells including apoptosis and cell death procedures, thus the cells can be stored in a stagnant state for long periods of time till they are thawed for use. The temperature needs to be as low as -196˚C and the medium used now is liquid nitrogen. However, cryoprotective agents like DMSO and glycerol are used now to prevent intracellular freezing. Cells like microbial cells (protozoa, fungi spores etc), animal cells (oocyte, sperm, embryo etc) and viruses have been successfully cryopreserved till date. Cryopreservation is a boon for scientific development. Pregnancies have been possible using 20 years frozen embryos and ovarian cells can be stored to help women to conceive even after menopause. Cryopreservation of microbes is being conducted to add data to bio-bank, thus making it possible to study something even if it becomes extinct. Another extremely important use for cryopreservation is, pr eservation of stem cells. If a new born’s stem cells (extracted from placenta) are preserved, they can be used for surgeries in his lifetime thereby eliminating surgical complications. Wildlife scientists are also contemplating to use this technique to save endangered species and clone some extinct ones. My first brush with Anemia was when I was inflicted by it. That is when I came up close and personal with the disease and gained information about it from my doctor. The most important transport fluid in the human body is the blood and the composition of which is complex and intricate. Anemia is the most common blood disorder which arises when there is a decrease in the number of RBC’s or in the amount of hemoglobin in the body. Since the primary work of RBC’s is to supply oxygen, shortage of it causes oxidative stress in the cells which leads to further clinical complications. The degree of the disease depends on the severity and the type of

Instruction and Student Learning Research Paper

Instruction and Student Learning - Research Paper Example One essential element that needs to be carefully monitored is the curriculum and instruction of the school. It is evident that any curriculum definition one way or another puts emphasis on the learning process, gained knowledge and skills, subject content and students’ comprehensive learning experience. In designing an appropriate course curriculum, an essential process needs to be considered including which curriculum model is most suitable for the needs of the learner. The process of learning is as important as the content learned (Newby 2005). One of the most traditional and most commonly used models is â€Å"content or syllabus-based†. Blenkin et al (1992) suggest that curriculum is delineated into subjects and delivered through a bulk of knowledge-content. Education, he states, is the route where these can be transferred to students using efficient teaching and learning methods. This type of curriculum emphasizes students attending schools to learn subject-specific facts. It also helps to use this model in assessment process where students, according to their gained qualification can be grouped in to high and low achievers. Schools at present may have similar goals of optimizing students’ learning and maximizing their potentials but may have differing philosophies, approaches and educational strategies in fulfilling these goals. â€Å"Predictably, the traditional teacher-centered model in which knowledge is â€Å"transmitted† from teacher to learner is rapidly being replaced by alternative models of instruction (e.g., learner-centered, constructivist, and sociocultural ideas) in which the emphasis is on guiding and supporting students as they learn to construct their understanding of the culture and communities of which they are a part (Brown et al., 1993; Duffy & Cunningham, 1996; Pea, 1993). In the process of shifting our attention to the constructive activity of the learner, we recognize the need to anchor learning in real-w orld or authentic contexts that make learning meaningful and purposeful. â€Å" (Bonk & Cunningham, 1998, p.27) Constructivist theory is gaining more attention, recognition and acceptance in many educational institutions. It premises on the belief that learners â€Å"construct† their own learning, and in effect, have better retention of it. In the Constructivist theory the emphasis is placed on the learner or the student rather than the teacher or the instructor.   It is the learner who interacts with objects and events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by such objects or events.   The learner, therefore, constructs his/her own conceptualizations and solutions to problems.   Learner autonomy and initiative is accepted and encouraged (Van Ryneveld, n.d., n.p.). Teachers come up with several strategies in capturing their students’ attention, and courses are offered in helping educators become more efficient in imparting knowledge and skills t o their pupils. No longer do they limit their teaching strategies to boring lectures, dizzying written and oral examinations and students’ delivery of memorized answers to expected questions. Teaching aids have likewise expanded from using flashcards, blackboard demonstrations and textbooks to more concrete materials like actual 3-dimensional objects, dioramas and multimedia materials. Activities are likewise evolving to be more

Salmon Fishing in the Yemen Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Salmon Fishing in the Yemen - Movie Review Example Worse still Afghanistan is bombed, a factor that leads to the British PM, Maxwell Patricia call for the need to strengthen the relationship between the British and Muslim worlds4. In the business world, it is possible that cultures differ. Each of the cultural worlds tends to be suspicious of the other party as they do not share the same experiences and beliefs. As seen in the film, Harriet is frustrated by Jones, the fisheries expert who has numerous misconceptions about Yemen’s ability to sustain the business5. In fact, Jones is wary that he might tarnish his business name in the event that he invests in the Yemen community and is completely against the project, to an extent that he walks out of the meeting6. In this case, it is warranted to argue that the profits that would be accrued from investing in Yemen can easily be lost due to the cultural variations between the two parties. Jones is simply uninterested by any chance getting involved with the Yemenis but Harriet insi sts7. Later in the film, culture is seen as yet another barrier to business success. Jones finally agrees to the business plan and a meeting with the Sheikh is set8. Upon arrival, at the Scottish Highlands, Jones reveals that he has no faith, an aspect that demoralizes Sheikh who believes that the fishing industry requires a commitment to one’s faith9. This sparks a conflict between both parties who have a conflict of interests that emanate from their cultural faith. However, the project goes on well despite the personal problems in the lives of Jones and Harriet but cultural issues continue to dwindle the success of the business10. This time, Sheikh is accused of staining the Islamic world by doing business with the West11. It gets to a point that the Sheikh is to be assassinated by some radicals, and faces opposition from the locals who do not want the pods to be operational. Sheikh attempts to explain that he opened the pod for the good of the people, but the locals are no t impressed with that fact at all12. This can arguably be indicated to emanate from the variations in beliefs from the two worlds. Arguably, culture has played a major role in the assessing the various outcomes of the project. In the event that both parties would not have jeopardized their beliefs in terms of culture, it is obvious that the business would not have succeeded one mile. This is for the reason that each of the parties would be quick to judge the other and use their misconceptions in the business. It is the respect of the cultural variations that led to the success of the project in the long run, as the interests of the business were put first; thus, picking the best from each group. From the film, it is clear that Sheikh is quick to explain the spirituality and the religion that is linked to fishing, but Jones seems not care about that, but the project success13.

Communication eassy 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Communication eassy 7 - Essay Example Earliest films were very short, often just a minute or ten, one or two reels and eventually it goes up to 2 hours. (The Birth and Early Development of   the  Motion Picture,by Robert P. Brooks, Bulletin of the Passaic County Historical Society, April 1959). We can see a gradual development in the field of motion picture. Several inventors set up their projector machine in make shift halls and projected moving pictures on a screen. The ides of longer film with story began in 1895. The man named James .H White produced a picture 500 feet in length. It was called ‘American Fireman’. Today motion pictures have predisposed both in maintaining social order and powerful agents of change. Films are cultural artifacts formed by special cultures. Motion pictures have been a great influence in the cultural field. It affected the society too much. When motion pictures transformed from black-and –white to colour in U.S in the 1950’s the sensors struggled much to eli minate erotic imagery, and immoral treatment of sexuality. Many directors of that time violated the moral side of film industry. A good example for such film is â€Å"Lady Chatterleys Lover†, banned by New York censorship board in 1957. (Vaughn). Nudity, explicit sexual behavior, profane language, gratuitous violence, and themes of promiscuity, homosexuality, abortion, drug use, etc were the chief characteristics of the films of that time. The year 1968 marked tremendous changes in U.S. film industry. A new system of Production Code has been adopted that prevented the government censorship. Censors edited the films before they reached the theatres. A kind of spiritual and moral progress was visible in the films of 1930’s and it also promoted high social life and enlightened thinking. Those Films which were not acceptable to the social morality were severely opposed by the Roman Catholic Church and they were banned in the

Visual Arts and Film Studies Tests. Changes in exhibition from the Assignment

Visual Arts and Film Studies Tests. Changes in exhibition from the early 1900s through the 1940s - Assignment Example Moreover, cinema of attraction is based on shock, spectacle, and sensation. According to Gunning, cinema of attraction greatly differs with the contemporary narrative cinema that solicits a voyeuristic spectatorial gaze. It is an early exhibition where the spectators become overtly acknowledged, and invited to look. What is the PCA? In order to regulate morality and politics within films, the PCA (Production Code Administration), patrolled major issues that came about in the movies, moral barricades and the politics involved in movie productions. The government decided that wartime movies were very delicate to be left to the moviemakers thus the PCA, the Office of War Information, policing morality, and guarding politics made sure that the American screen was tightly regulated like no any other time in history. The PCA and its associated groups worked towards improvement in the film content in outright falsifications in others and evasions. What is a â€Å"star vehicle†? A ‘star vehicle refers to a movie, television show, or a play fabricated mainly to enhance a star’s career. The main aim of a star vehicle revolves around promoting a performer with the anticipation of inducting a bankable star. For instance, a bankable star compels the spectators to watch either the television show, play or even the film since he/she is featured in the project. Any successful star vehicle portrays unique talents exhibited y the star being promoted. In addition, a star vehicle can be created to showcase a star shifting from one genre to another. In a star vehicle, the young or inexperienced actor signs a long-term contract with a major studio. However, in some cases, the actor may produce for himself or herself a vehicle thus resulting to a form of self-promotion (Lewis, 2002). d. What does Jane Feuer mean when she refers to the â€Å"dual diegesis† of the backstage musical? Modernist cinema in association wi th Hollywood musical, use dual in the world of films in order to reflect the relationship of the spectator to the film. Dual diegesis in this sense parallels the use of internal audience. In other cases, dual diegesis calls attention to the discrepancy between reality and fiction, or history and fiction. According to Jane, Hollywood musicals are built upon a base of dual registers with the contrast between number and narrative defining musical comedy as a form. In the backstage, musical dual levels are apparent in contrast between the show or film and the backstage plot within the film, between the world offstage and world onstage. e. How was the production of Casablanca affected by U.S. entry into World War II? Scholarly research depicts that one of the main argument was that the government collaborated with the Hollywood industry to use film as propaganda during the Second World War. Due to the stigma that surrounded Hollywood in the early 20’s, directors and actors were co nvicted of outrage that led to public accusation of immorality within the film industry. Moreover, the government worked directly with Hollywood by using its films as a powerful tool to enhance the war. It was during t5his period that Casablanca was greatly affected. These films displayed anti-Japanese propaganda, grim images, and the sacrifices made by the American soldiers. Even after the war, the films continued to portray skewed sights of the war with glorifying efforts made by the soldiers to show the sacrifices they made were quite worthwhile. 2. What changes in exhibition took place

Explain which inventory systems should be used in each situation Assignment

Explain which inventory systems should be used in each situation - Assignment Example a. For the purposes of supplying my kitchen with fresh food, I would consider the fixed-time period model for my inventory system. This is because fresh food should be of constant supply in my kitchen and ready to use at any given time, hence I would order at certain intervals of time for example every weekend. It is also more convenient due to the different types of fresh food involved. b. Obtaining a daily news paper is definitely more of a one-time purchase, thus i would apply the single-period model for my daily newspaper. This is because I would either receive the evening news paper once in a day or the morning news paper once in a day depending with my preference. c. For the purposes of buying gas for my car i would prefer the fixed-order quantity model since I would like to maintain a given quantity of gas in my car at any given time. This quantity of gas is only eligible for refill when my car almost runs out of the quantity I purchased earlier so as to reduce my level of stocking out. The item in my list with the highest stock out cost is buying gas for my car. This is because I would only want to maintain gas quantity in my car to a certain level with a given quantity so that i would monitor it to a level that the stock out risk is great enough for me to order a

Zara Retailing Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Zara Retailing Analysis - Essay Example Key competitive advantage Among of Zara’s competitive advantages are its manpower and human resource management. It is noted that 80% of its employees were engaged in retail sales in stores and 8.5% were involved in manufacturing, design, logistics, distribution, and the remaining were part of headquarters’ activities. This only implies that Zara is good at optimizing its entire operation especially on its supply chain management. Zara is also aggressive in its expansion program considering that 80% of its capital expenditures is appropriated to new store openings, 19% on refurbishing and 10% on logistics. This is one of its competitive advantages because its renowned international competitors are not that aggressive in their expansion program. Zara is also known to consider great savings on employment. It tries to gain more in its manpower expenses by choosing personnel with substantial experience in the clothing industry but with a relatively cheap labor. This is one of the reasons why Zara is generating much competitive income in its operations compared to its competitors. The three international leading competitors of Zara are the Gap from the United States, Hennes & Mauritz from Sweden, and Benetton from Italy. Geographically speaking, it is an advantage for Zara because apparel disposal in 2000 is higher in Europe which is 34%, and followed by the United States which is 29% and in Asia which is 23% (Case 32: Zara: Fast fashion). Zara is based in Europe and this is an advantage on its part because of its proximity in the profitable market for apparel in the world. The proximity is an advantage because this has something to do with other strategic advantage when it comes to culture and understanding customer’s needs at the deepest level. In fact, it is in line with this that Zara has continuous innovation based on customer’s desires. Inditext’s financial comparison Shown in Table 1 are some of the indicators of the financi al performance of Inditex, Benetton, H&M, and Gap. Gap has the highest net operating revenue among the three other retailing companies which is an indication that it may either has more retail outlets than the other or it is really at its best in stimulating needs or demand for its product offerings. Next to Gap is H&M followed by Inditex and finally Benetton. The net revenue can be an indication of market share and in this case, Inditex is not far behind the Gap and H&M. The same trend goes on from gross profit margin until operating efficiency. The operating efficiency is the operating expenses as a percentage of net operating revenues. The above indicators are not enough to tell which among of the four companies have higher profitability. When it comes to profitability, Inditex is more profitable compared to Gap, H&M and Benetton. Inditex has 10.5% net profit margin which is an indication that it has substantially generated more profits. This is the effect of maximizing its opera tion and resources. In fact, its PPE (property, plant and equipment) as percentage of net operating revenue is also higher than the other retailing companies. This is another indication that Inditex has substantially maximized its operation and resources to the fullest compared to the other retailing companies. Table 1. Financial performance of Inditex and its three international competitors Operating results (â‚ ¬ Millions) Gap H&M Benetton Inditex Net operating revenue 15,559 4,269 2,098 3,250 Gross margin 4,656 2,204 909 1,687 Operating efficiency 27.4% 37.8% 29.7% 30.2% Net profit margin -0.05% 9.6% 7.1% 10.5% PPE (% of net operating revenue 30.2% 15.9% 34.3% 37.8% Zara’s fast response model Zara’s fast response model contributes to its competitive advantage. The market for young

Evolution of the Problem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Evolution of the Problem - Essay Example Due to the specialised nature of their services and the unique administrative framework, we expect substantial variations in the results of such investigations. Primarily, the NHCGL is a military hospital that aims at higher standards of service but not necessarily higher profitability. The administration is naturally not inclined to streamlining the organisation and optimising functionality as long as the services are not visibly affected. As the organisation grows larger it beocmes more and more difficult to alter the existing systems and the urger to continue with the current practices becomes stronger; thwarting efforts of change. The structure of most hospitals evolved as a response to their main function: which is "to cure patients with a great diversity of diseases in an effective way and with a minimum of risk, using most advanced medical techonologies available" (Don and Wolff, 1988). The core activities are performed by highly trained professionals- medical specialists in the case of hospitals. Their activities are highly standardized and they work relatively independetly of their colleagues though in close contact with their patients. This gives the health care organiational structure a certain looseness so that the tasks of the other members are not well defined. This was documented as early as 1988 in a study by Don Wallis and Charles Johannes Wolff. Their study also showed that the differentiation of tasks and the flexibility of rotations were lesser in public hospitals as compared to private hospitals. Hospitals have less formalisation and functional differentiation than industrial firms. In hospit als, the number of different medical specialisations and the differentiation of nursing departments are quite independent of each other. In summary, the existence of various communication related issues have been allowed to exist and even develop in the military

Racial Diversity of Native Americans Essay Example for Free

Racial Diversity of Native Americans Essay Native Americans were settled in the country before anyone else. But they ended up being the most â€Å"abused† out of any race that ever settled in the country. Native Americans had to fight for land that was originally theirs and sometimes fight just to stay alive. The fight was usually the same too. If it wasn’t against settlers, it was against the government. In some areas, it’s still happening today. Now it’s just with land developers. What has been forgotten is the rich culture that Native Americans possess. There are states that have many towns whose names are originated from Native American names. But they only serve as a small reminder of who used to reside on that land, centuries ago. These people are now residing on reservations that they were forced to move to and some still reside there today. There are small tribes scattered all over the United States, but the larger ones are as such. The Apache Nation still resides in the Southern Plains, Southwest and Southeast of the United States. Cherokee are located in East Tennessee and North Carolina. Cheyenne are in the Plains, along with the Sioux. Chinook reside along the Northwest Pacific Coast. The Iroquois are located in the Northeast of the United States, while Mohawk are primarily in New York. The Navajo Nation is located in New Mexico, Arizona and Utah. Except for a few Native Americans that made it into the history books like Pocahontas (1595-1617); Geronimo (1829-1909); Squanto (1581-1622) and Cochise (1815-1874), the history of the Native American is not one to be proud of. Some of the incidents that they had to endure are: Iroquois, the â€Å"Northeast† Native Americans welcomed some of the first European immigrants in the early 1600’s. They taught the immigrants how to survive in the new world. In return their land was taken or purchased for next to nothing and in the end they were pushed out. Currently, Native Americans living in Virginia are not recognized as Native American because of Walter Ashby Plecker. He was a White Supremacist and the first registrar of the state Bureau of Vital Statistics. He believed the Native Americans had been crossbred with the African American population. So a law was passed in 1912 by the state’s. General Assembly, which stated only two races would be recognized, ‘white’ and ‘colored’. Plecker had so much power that he was able to pressure the local government into reclassifying the Virginia Native Americans as ‘colored’. All of the records of the race were then destroyed. Ironically enough, as a â€Å"Thank you† to the Native Americans, the Indian Citizen Act of 1924 was put in place. The law gave official citizenship to Native Americans across the country. It was done because of the heroic service of many Native Americans during World War I. Native Americans are one the most culture filled races in the world. From totem poles, to peace pipes to even currently dream catchers, all of these things had special meanings and purposes to the Native American people. The Europeans probably appreciated these things initially, but over time they tried to make them all disappear. The more time the Europeans spent with the Native Americans, the more they didn’t like their customs. So eventually the Europeans tried to force their culture on the Native Americans via ‘deculturalization’. Over time, the Native Americans were forbidden to speak their language, practice their religion and cultures. The Europeans even forced the English language on the Native Americans. They were punished or even jailed when they attempted to ignore these new rules that were placed upon them. Native American children were removed from their families and sent to boarding schools, so they were ‘Americanized’. These children were forced to change their hair and wear clothing that felt wrong to them. The process demoralized the Native Americans and broke their spirit. As if the practice of ‘deculturalization’ wasn’t enough, as if these people slowly losing their property to the settlers was not enough, the government took another step in constraining the Natives. President Andrew Jackson decided that the Natives weren’t being pushed out fast or far enough so on May 28, 1830, the Indian Removal Act became a law. The purpose was to make the Natives leave their land all together and move to the area of the country commissioned as ‘Indian Territory’. Initially, it was to be a peaceful, legal trade of property. Trade the property in the Southeast United States for the property in the ‘Indian Territory’. The Natives that did not comply were eventually forced out all together. The Cherokee Nation specifically moved west crossing the Mississippi River from the Southeast. This trek became known as Trail of Tears because approximately 4,000 Cherokee died from starvation, exposure, and illnesses. One of the last battles between the government and the Natives happened in 1890. Disdain towards the ‘white man’ started the sparks flying in South Dakota and it turned into a power struggle over firearms. When the bullets stopped flying, it ended up being one of the worst massacres on record. On December 29, 1890, warriors, women, and children were ferociously slaughtered by the U. S. Cavalry at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Because the American government’s forces were so much stronger than the Natives, there was really nothing they could do to stop anything the government did. Many tried to appeal to the courts, but the cases were always lost. So the Native Americans did what they could to start over again on the reservations and made it a point to never trust the ‘white man’ again for anything. The United States government decided to resolve issues with Native Americans. One of the first things done was the Indian Reorganization Act, put into law on June 18, 1934. The purpose was to decrease the federal control of Indian affairs and increase Indian self-government and responsibilities. The act encouraged written charters and constitutions giving the Natives the power to handle their own affairs. Also funds were made available for revolving credit programs for the Native Americans for all that were interested in purchasing tribal land, for education and to assist in organizing the tribes. Many tribes and villages accepted the act and moved forward with plans to make improvements for themselves, as well as the tribe. Many improved their economic position, while others did purchase land to expand the acre size of the reservations. Improvements were also made within the health and educational services on the reservations and children were able to go to public schools. Currently there are over 500 recognized tribal governments in the United States. There are currently more than 5 million Native Americans alive today, according to the 2010 census bureau. They are self-governed and considered to be independent people. They are also one of the most resilient people in this country’s history. Even though life on the reservations is still difficult to this day, due to unemployment and high rates of alcoholism, Native Americans have a true spirit of survival. Despite how they were treated when the Europeans got settled, Native Americans always believed that the spirits would always watch over them and bring them over the mountain of despair. And it did. REFERENCES All About History (2002-2013) Native American History. Retrieved by http://www. allabouthistory. org/native-american-history. htm American Indian Heritage Foundation. (2012) Native American Culture. Retrieved by http://www. indians. org/articles/native-american-culture. html Census Bureau. (2012). The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010. Retrieved by http://www.census. gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10. pdf Creations, N. (2013) Native History, Native Experiences- Native Voices of First Nations People. Retrieved by http://firstpeoplesvoices. com/beginning. htm Encyclopedia Britannica. (2013). Indian Reorganization Act. Retrieved by http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/285946/Indian-Reorganization-Act PBS. (1995). Trail of Tears. Retrieved from http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h1567. html The Wild West (2012). War Between the Settlers and The Native American Indians. Retrieved by http://www. the-wild-west. co. uk/war-settlers. htm.

Business plan and marketing strategy for Nike

Business plan and marketing strategy for Nike The real value of creating a business plan is not in having the finished product in hand; rather, the value lies in the process of researching and thinking about your business in a systematic way. The act of planning helps you to think things through thoroughly, study and research if you are not sure of the facts, and look at your ideas critically. It takes time now, but avoids costly, perhaps disastrous, mistakes later. Exective summary Nikes is a world largest company that sell all kind of products in almost every country. Explain the fundamentals of the business: What is your product, who are your customers, who are the owners, and what do you think the future holds for your business and your industry? Make it enthusiastic, professional, complete, and concise. If you are applying for a loan, state clearly how much you want, precisely how you are going to use it, and how the money will make your business more profitable, thereby ensuring repayment Company history In 1962 nike was founded by bill bowerman and as blue ribbon sports.in 1985 the highly turned point of nike was when the world greatest player come into company.first they introduce their product like shoes shirts bags jeckets and with the passage of time they introduce almost every thing which man required.after that nike teamed up and more famous athlete like bo Jackson Andre Agassi, Charles Barkley and many more product. Planning Selecting mission and objectives as well as the action to achieves them which requires decision making.for example nike planning are mission or purposes 2objective 3strategy 4policies 5procedures 6 rules 7programs. Nike MISSION nikes mission is to alleviate poverty by providing quality and cost effective microfinance services to low income households, especially women, in order to enhance their economic role and decision-making capacity. We empower poor women and their families to become economically self reliant by providing financial services in a sustainable manner. We promote economic self-actualization by providing the poor with continuous economic opportunities so they can realize their potential and overcome barriers of poverty. At nike we believe access to financial services is the basic right of each and every individual. nike places the client at the center of all financial services that it offers and designs products and services in the light of the clients demands. We believe clients from low-income communities require innovative financial solutions to meet the many contingencies and crises they face as a result of vulnerable cashflows. With a constantly growing outreach of clients and a diverse product range, nike adheres to delighting its clients with client focused products that grow with their evolving needs. Our future goals are to: 1. Improve access and scale of microfinance services by demonstrating that women in Pakistan are credible and are active economic agents by reaching out to 750,000 female clients by 2010 2. Continue to innovate by creating client-driven products and services for low income households, including home improvement loans and a health insurance product Strengthen customer care processes by empowering field staff to listen to client feedback on a continuous basis 3. Sustain nikes financially viable business model of providing financial services to the poor and mainstream it with other financial institutions to ensure scalability Objectives or goals The ends toward which activity is aimed. In this part we know that nikes abjective is to achieve something in a specific or selected time just say for example nike planning is to sold women wear in 3 month so the employees of nike must have to sell these product within the time. Product and services Nikes product and services are too much and very cheaper because the make a strategy that the sell their product to all customer and get satisfication. For example in shoes product we see that all kind of shoes in nike company are very comfortable and very cheaper.nike almost sell their product in all over the world.for example in Pakistan every body in Pakistan like nike product and they almost use these products.but when we talk about nikes fitness In Pakistan mostly people are unaware about this because when women use nikes fitness items it is totally against islam and we know that Pakistan is a conservative country and people that already lived in Pakistan would,n like this.but on the other side we look that if we sell our product like shoes garments bags we see that these product we can easily sell. Nikes technology When we talk about nike technology we see that this is a multinational company and they almost use good raw and other material for their products.because when the use good material is initial they can get more profit because customer like their product. Market analysis summary Nike is the most successful producers of sports feetwear with rebook aswell as with the manufactures of causal footwear. However now company faces a number of challenges that they does not exist few years ago.now in market thay face a number of company that sell all these product that nike already sell It and these are less cheaper if we compare to all nikes product so now nike are going to change their strategy to face this challenges. Market Needs Now nike change their strategy now the see all the environment that now what market needs in these days for example in summer days they introduce their new product in rainy days they introduce their waterproof jackets. Market Trends Nikes need to use the new strategy just says fo example what is trend now a days in Pakistan we see that their we sell the product that match with the socity and we cant use other products because Pakistan is a conservative country. Main Competitors In Pakistan we see that there are a number of companies that sell all the products that nike also sell. But nike face a number of chelenges because other company sell all these products with the same rate that nike also.so nike should have to change their strategy.they should have to introduce less cheaper product that anybody can purchase easily. Marketing Plan Market research: Why? You spend so much time on marketing-related matters customers, competitors, pricing, promotion, and advertising that it is natural to assume that you have little to learn. However, every small business can benefit from doing market research to make sure it is on track. Use the business planning process as your opportunity to uncover data and to question your marketing efforts. It will be time well spent. Customers Identify your customers, their characteristics, and their geographic locations; that is, demographics. The description will be completely different depending on whether you sell to other businesses or directly to consumers. If you sell a consumer product, but sell it through a channel of distributors, wholesalers, and retailers, you must carefully analyze both the end user and the intermediary businesses to which you sell. You may have more than one customer group. Identify the most important groups. Then, for each consumer group, construct a demographic profile: Age Gender Location Income level Social class/occupation Education Other For business customers, the demographic factors might be: Industry (or portion of an industry) Location Size of firm Quality/technology/price preferences Marketing Strategy The first one is that you really dont need a fancy logo or catch phrase to get your fitness marketing plan to work well for you. The simple truth is that nobody really cares what your logo looks like, nor do they stop and consider using your services simply because you have a nice-looking logo or a really great catch phrase. They stop because youre showing them real, tangible results. Youre in the fitness industry, and thats what people want. They only care about results. Can you actually prove and show them results? How about a before/after photo of a previous client? Make sure theyre ok with you using their photo and/or name!. Location The city of lahore, which is popular as heart of Pakistan , is an important tourist centre in Pakistan . The city houses one of the seven wonders of world and is an established commercial centre. Besides other institutions the place has a good number of basic health facilities that provide services to the residents and tourists. Many healthcare centres operate in the city. The infrastructure include several government hospitals, private nursing homes, allopathic hospitals and dispensaries and primary health care centres. Including the medical college there are seven government hospitals. Some 15 nursing homes provide the services and facilities in the city. Primary Health Care Centers are primarily meant for rural areas and all the 56 centers are located in the rural areas. Out of a total of 45 allopathic centres 39 are in the suburbs. One special fact, as revealed by a study conducted in Lahore , there are many Ayurvedic practitioners in Agra whose average age is about 70 years. The prime hospitals and nursing homes in Lahore include District Hospital, sheikh zaid Hospital ,Cantonment Hospital, Centre Jalma Institute of Leprosy Tajganj, T.B. Hospital Near, Mental Hospital Billochpura, Ashoka Hospital , Amit Jaggi Memorial Hospital , Medical Institute, Sri Ram Hospital. Distribution channel The fitness equipment industry in Pakistan is witnessing significant growth as pakistanis increasingly become health and fitness conscious. The market is estimated to be worth INR 12.5 bn in 2008 and is expected to reach INR 63.3 bn by 2012. The end-user segments include individuals using fitness equipments at home and institutions like health clubs, corporate houses. The report provides a brief overview of the fitness equipment industry including market size, growth, types of equipments and key segments. An analysis of drivers explain growth factors such as increasing health and fitness consciousness amongst pakistan growing demand from corporate houses, entry of foreign fitness chains/clubs, reduction in prices and import duties and real estate boom. The key challenges identified include lack of RD facilities in the country, lack of consumer confidence in Indian equipments, lack of good fitness trainers and lack of space in residential complexes. The key trends identified include health chains entering equipment retailing market, introduction of innovative products and emergence of new distribution channels Operational Plan One of the biggest mistakes that people tend to make is to start a fitness program without planning how it will realistically fit into their everyday lives. As a personal trainer in a club with thousands of members, I have seen many new and eager faces begin programs, ready to commit to 7 days a week the minute they buy their membership. I feel very happy that they are taking such a big step forward but at the same time I cant help but wonder who will manage to make this significant lifestyle change and actually be there in six months. The statistics are not in favor of these new members. Only about 20 percent will actually be able maintain this commitment. . Production How and where do you produce your products or services? Explain your methods of: Production techniques and costs Quality control Customer service Inventory control Product development Legal Environment Describe the following: Licensing and bonding requirements Permits Health, workplace, or environmental regulations Special regulations covering your industry or profession Zoning or building code requirements Insurance coverage Trademarks, copyrights, or patents (pending, existing, or purchased) Personnel Number of employees Type of labor (skilled, unskilled, professional) Where do you find new employees? Quality of existing staff Pay structure Training methods and requirements New hiring in the coming year? Who does which tasks? Are schedules and procedures in place? Financial Plan The financial plan consists of a 12-month profit and loss projection, a four-year profit and loss projection (optional), a cash-flow projection, a projected balance sheet, and a breakeven calculation. Together, these spreadsheets constitute a reasonable estimate of your companys financial future. More important, however, the process of thinking through the financial plan will improve your insight into the inner financial workings of your company. GENRAL LOAN The GL focuses on building and sustaining economic opportunities of poor households and thus achieving nikes over-arching goal of alleviating poverty. The GL is based on group collateral where a group of 25 women jointly insure each other against default. In light of nikes strong commitment to customer care, center members have to wait only 7 days after their registration to get the first loan, while repeat clients can obtain a loan within 24 hours. The loans are advanced to female members of the household and it is the mutual decision of the household to decide on the economic activity that they will invest in. BUISNESS LOAN Clients requiring loans below Rs 500,000 cannot obtain access to formal financial sources, since such amounts are still too small for commercial banks. A quick estimate can show that the potential market for small enterprises is about 6 million with a negligible outreach to such entrepreneurs by the banking and the microfinance sector as a whole. ABC targets fast moving small entrepreneurs through the BSL, the entire methodology of which is based on a credit scoring model. The BSL is advanced to clients with a minimum of 2 years running experience of their businesses and has no collateral requirements. Generally the loan has a minimum processing time of less than 5 days. Strengths and weaknesses are initial and Kotler (1988) says these must cover the four areas of marketing, financial, manufacturing and organizational. Opportunities and threats look at the main environmental issues such as the economic situation, social changes such as the population getting older and technological developments including the internet. A SWOT analysis example for a cosmetics manufacturer might include: Strengths Strong and have a good market experience High brand recognition Better customer dealing Weaknesses Prices perceived to be too high Costs spiralling out of control due to increases from raw material suppliers Inconsistent brand identity Opportunities Growth of the internet leading to an increase in the number of consumers willing to buy online New emerging teen market Threats New affordable luxury entrants to the market threatening to take share from premium brands Major competitor planning to integrate vertically and sell direct to the consumer Rise in popularity of nail spas leading to decline in demand for nail products Management and Organization A project must be included in the general objectives of the business, because it generally mobilizes personnel for a long period of time. This is why it is necessary for an organization to determine its intentions in the medium term (one to three years) before even starting projects. Thus, the management organizational chart serves to provide prospective strategic orientation in order to provide a rough idea of the interrelation of the principal objectives over time. Thus, it makes it possible to define priorities in terms of achievement of objectives and to provide visibility to the organizations ambitions. The management organizational chart, in the case of large structures, may be useful in the form of a Strategic Organizational Chart (sometimes General Organizational Chart), combining several different management organizational charts. The management organizational chart is created by a Management Committee (or Strategic Committee), combining the repesentatives of the organizationss general management. The Management Committee therefore represents the general management of the company for all projects. However, the inclusion of a project in the management organizational chart does not guarantee that the related work will be done. In fact, the term project includes intention, which implies feasibility, which is one of the intermediate stages between the creation of the management organizational chart and the start of the project

The Gas Exchange And Transport

The Gas Exchange And Transport The changes in pulmonary ventilation and blood flow are actually regulated by the central nervous system through the respiratory and cardiovascular areas located in the brain. According to Sir Joseph Barcroft in 1934, exercise actually forces both cardiovascular and respiratory system to perform at a higher level of function. [1] This helps us to understand better how both respiratory and cardiovascular systems interact with each other to perform well. Gas Exchange and Transport Gaseous exchange occurs in the alveoli of the human lungs. Air in the alveolus has a higher partial pressure of oxygen compared to the blood in the pulmonary artery. Therefore, oxygen diffuses into the blood at capillary by dissolving in the moisture on the alveolar surface. On the other hand, air in the alveolus has a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide compared to the blood in capillaries. Hence, the carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillary to alveolus to be exhaled out. [2] There are several factors which affect the gaseous exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the blood capillaries and alveoli in the lungs. These factors are the surface area available for diffusion, the length of the diffusion pathway, and the hemoglobin concentration in the blood. At rest, not all the capillaries that surround the alveoli are open. During exercise, more alveoli and capillaries are opened which increase the surface area to allow a faster diffusion to occur. [1] During exercise, there is also movement of fluid from blood into the surrounding cells and tissues. This is termed hemoconcentration. This will increase the concentration of hemoglobin in blood by 5% to 10%. [1] The increase in body temperature that causes the person to sweat will reduce plasma volume. This will produce hemoconcentration as well. This is the reason why during exercise, gas transport per unit volume of blood flow increases. [1] Oxygen Dissociation Curve Respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between our body and the environment. When inspiratory muscles contract, air rushes into the lungs due to the higher pressure of external environment. Air is forced out from the lungs to the environment during expiration when the pressure inside thoracic cavity becomes higher. [2] During exercises, active tissues such as skeletal muscles need more oxygen to generate ATP. [3] Therefore, they produce more carbon dioxide and the body temperature increase. This carbon dioxide will react with water in the tissue to form carbonic acid which increases acidity. Increase in the acidity of blood will reduce the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen. As the result, more oxygen is released to these active tissues. [2] For example, during moderate exercises, skeletal muscles need more oxygen and they produce more carbon dioxide due to the work out. So, the pH is decreased causing the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen reduce. Hemoglobin with a lower affinity to oxygen has oxygen dissociation curve which is further to the right. Body temperature which increases during exercise will cause the shifting of oxygen dissociation curve to the right as well. [5] According to Merle L. Foss and Steven J. Keteyian in their book, Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport, the respiratory system change the rate and depth of ventilation to help regulate the hydrogen ion concentration of our body fluid. When body fluid pH decreases, for example, during exercises, ventilation increases to blow off carbon dioxide. When at rest, ventilation decreases to retain carbon dioxide in body fluid. [1] Ventilation changes during exercise Involuntary control of breathing is carried out by the breathing center in the medulla oblongata. [2] This breathing center consists of an inspiratory center and expiratory center. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide which also affects the pH of blood is the most important factor controlling the rate and depth of breathing. The chemoreceptors detect the changes in partial pressure of carbon dioxide of blood and cerebral spinal fluid. These chemoreceptors are the carotid bodies, the aortic bodies, and the medulla [1] that near the breathing center. During moderate exercises, there is a rapid increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood. This is due to the accumulation of lactic acid in muscles. The increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide stimulates the chemoreceptors to transmit impulses to the inspiratory center. Inspiratory center transmits impulses to diaphragm muscles and intercostal muscle for rate and depth breathing. [3] At the first few second after start the exercise, there is a rapid increase in the ventilation. This is due to the increase in the central command from cortex. The increase in the neural stimuli to medulla because of the activation of muscle or joint receptors may cause the hyperventilation as well. After that, the rapid ventilation start to achieve at steady state or it shows a slower rise. This is because chemoreceptors start to react to increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and decrease in the pH of blood or cerebral spinal fluid. The ventilation continues to increase until the exercise is stop. [1] During normal breathing, a human adult inhales and exhales about 450cm ³ of air. This is known as tidal volume. During vigorous activity, tidal volume can increase up to 2000cm ³. [2] Oxygen uptake increases linearly as the work rate is increasing. However, above a certain work rate the oxygen uptake reaches a plateau. Thats mean there is a limiting factor to oxygen up take. [3] Structure of Human Heart Human heart consists of 4 chambers, left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle and right ventricle. Both the left and right ventricles have thicker muscular wall compare to left and right atria wall because ventricles need to contract strongly to pump blood out of the heart. Whereas, the wall of left ventricle is 3 to 4 times thicker to right ventricle because left ventricle need to pump blood to all parts of our body except lungs while right ventricle pump blood to lungs only. The intraventricular septum separate left and right side of the heart completely. Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs via pulmonary vein while right atrium received deoxygenated blood from the body through vena cava. [7] [6] Control of Heart Beat Heartbeat is myogenic. This is because beating of the heart is started by cardiac muscles and not by external stimulation. Sino atrial node (SAN) which is also known as the pacemaker for the heart is responsible to originate excitation for starting the heartbeat. SAN have a high permeability to sodium ions. So, SAN cells are depolarized as sodium ions diffuse into these cells continuously. The depolarization will generate electrical impulse that transmitted out from SAN cells to produce contraction of heart. Atrial systole occurs when the wave of excitation is conducted from SAN to walls of both atria. The impulses that generate by SAN is then activates atrioventricular node (AVN). AVN then transmits the impulses to apex of the ventricles via bundle of his. From the apex, impulses are transmitted to ventricular muscles through purkinje fibers. This transmission causes ventricles to contract and hence pump blood into pulmonary artery and aorta. [2] SAN can be accelerated or slowed down by the autonomic nerve system, endocrine system and some other factors. The amount of blood return to heart actually can induce the increase in the stroke volume and cardiac output of the heart. During exercise, the working skeletal muscles contract strongly and quickly. As a result, a large amount of blood is return to the heart via vena cava. There is stretch receptors (baroreceptors) located within the wall of the vena cava. When large amount of blood return to the heart, the vena cava dilates and this stretches its wall, stimulated the stretch receptors there. The stretch receptors then generate impulses at high frequency to transmit to cardiac accelerator center in the medulla oblongata. The stimulated accelerator center then transmits impulses via the sympathetic nerves to induce a faster and stronger heartbeat. [1] According to Starling Law, the strength of the heartbeat is related to how much the cardiac muscles are stretched. Therefore, the more the volume of blood returned to the heart, the stronger the ventricle contracts. [4] Stroke volume increases due to the strong ventricular contraction, thus there is high blood pressure in carotid artery and aorta. Stretch receptors are stimulated and transmit impulses to cardiac inhibitory center to slow down heartbeat. This is to prevent the heart from beating too fast. [2] Distribution of Blood Flow At rest, majority of the cardiac output is distributed to the visceral organ, the heart and the brain. Only 20% of the total systemic flow is distributed to the muscles. [1] However, during exercise, more active skeletal muscles received a higher proportion of the cardiac output due to the redistribution of the blood flow. The metabolic active skeletal muscles will receive 85 to 90% of the total blood flow during maximal exercise. [1] The redistribution of the blood flow is caused by the vasoconstriction of the arterioles at visceral organs and non-working skeletal muscles which are less active metabolically during the progress of exercise. The vasodilation of the arterioles which supply blood to the active skeletal muscles is also the reason that causing the redistribution of the blood flow. [1] The vasoconstriction of the arterioles at non-active tissues in our body during exercises is due to the increase in both neural input and release of noradrenaline to the blood. On the other hand, the vasodilation of arterioles at active skeletal muscles during exercise is mainly due to initial reflex sympathetic nervous system response and chemical changes in the body. Those chemical changes include increase in temperature, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions in plasma and blood, lactic acid level and decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen. The innermost layer of the arterial blood vessel will also release a vasodilation substance which is nitrous oxide to induce vasodilation of arterioles. [1] Blood Pressure Regulation Blood pressure is regulated by coordinating cardiac output and the diameter of the arteries. As cardiac output increases, blood pressure increases as well. Arterioles vasodilation lowers the blood pressure while arterioles vasoconstriction raises the blood pressure. The neurons from the vasomotor center in the medulla innervate the smooth muscles in all arterioles. [2] During exercises, there is increase in the cardiac output which raises blood pressure and stimulating the stretch receptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses. The stretch receptors then transmit impulses to the vasomotor center in the medulla. The vasomotor center then responds by causes the arterioles to vasodilate to decrease the blood pressure. It may cause the cardiac output to decrease also. [2] Blood pressure also affects by the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. During exercise, the increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will stimulate the chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies. The chemoreceptors then transmit the impulses to the vasomotor center in medulla that causes the arterioles to vasoconstrict. This can facilitate the carbon dioxide excretion as more blood can be transported to the lungs. [2] Conclusion After go through all the topics that we discussed above, we can conclude that all the adjustments make by respiratory and cardiovascular systems (cardiopulmonary) need to be controlled, coordinated and interact with one another well to operate at a higher level of function. Cardiopulmonary system is able to function efficiently because of the control of nervous system which involves both voluntary nervous system and involuntary nervous system. As both cardiovascular and respiratory systems are interconnected with each other, therefore, the stimulation of one area such as the increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will affect both ventilation and blood flow. As a result, to study physiological changes during moderate exercise, we need to study both cardiovascular and respiratory systems to understand better how they work.

The Effects of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 Essay

The Effects of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 The verb copy is defined as â€Å"To reproduce an original.† (Webster, 57-58) This idea of copying has been around for hundreds of years. In the current time, laws have had to be written to protect against the idea of copying someone else’s work. There are ways around the copyright laws. â€Å"A copy is in violation of a copyright if the original can be â€Å"perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated by or from the copy, directly or indirectly.† As years go on, copyrights become more and more specific as to what uses and kinds of copying are covered. (Baase, 239) Copyrights, in general, have been around for well over 200 years. â€Å"The first U.S. copyright law was passed in 1790. This copyright only protected books, maps, and charts. The copyright law of 1790 was later revised, covering photography, sound recording and movies.† (Baase, 239) Back then, that was their version of new technology where as today, if that copyright was all we had, no one would have an original of anything and no one would probably make nearly as much profit as they do now with new copyright laws that have been passed to protect the new up to date technology. Some examples of copyrights changing with the new technology come in years following. One of these examples of a copyright being revised is the copyright of 1976 and 1980. These copyright laws were revised to include software. (Baase, 239) An example of these ever-changing laws is the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998. Under this act, people are prohibited in â€Å"making, distributing or using of tools, which are devices, software or services, to circumvent technological copyright protecti... ...Act of 1998 can be seen as both a positive thing and a burden on some things. The act was generated to protect the originality of work and has successfully done so. To the artists it has helped and to the users of such things as Napster, it has hurt. At any rate, the act is an important one and when used correctly prevents fraud of a different sort. Works Cited Baase, Sara. (2003). A Gift of Fire (2nd ed.).Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1994). Webster’s Dictionary. Nickel Press. Lee, J. (2001, July). U.S. Arrests Russian Cryptographer as Copyright Violator. [15 paragraphs]. The New York Times. Available: www.nytimes.com/2001/07/18/technology/18CRYP.htmll?todaysheadline Brown, J. (2000, May). Napster throws Metallica a curveball. [8 paragraphs]. Salon.com. Available: http://dir.salon.com/tech/log/2000/05/10/napster_metallica/index.html

Surviving the Unthinkable Essay -- Psychology

We are never truly prepared for a catastrophic event but we spend plenty of time worrying about what we are going to do in one situation or another. We as human beings, much like animals, are hard-wired with survival skills; though sometimes our brains don’t always choose the right response. There are different tendencies the human brain leans toward in a life-threatening event or situation. Situational awareness and normalcy bias are two main tendencies that are displayed in disasters or extreme stress situations. These responses are not only achieved by experiencing a traumatic event but also by high risk activities such as sky diving and skiing. In the following paragraphs I will discuss how the brain responds to catastrophes and risky situations and how it can be a matter of survival and death. We all respond in different ways in the event of a disaster. But there are a few key things that happen to everyone in an event. In the first chapter of The Unthinkable, Zedeno states she was overwhelmed with a feeling of peace and calm when she found herself trapped in an elevator in the World Trade Center during the attempted detonation of a car bomb. During the events of September 11th, it was also pointed out by Zedeno that she observed co-workers making phone calls and shutting down their computers, not realizing the urgency of the situation. In most instances people fall into a kind of fog where they have a hard time focusing on the reality of the situation. This tendency is called normalcy bias. This â€Å"fog† causes people to underestimate the disaster and its effects. People also tend to interpret warnings in the most optimistic way possible, making the situation seem less serious (Spalding). Our brains often perceive danger a... ...om/2006/09/29/world/americas/29iht-profile.2981944.html?pagewanted=2&_r=2>. Spalding, Steven. "Normalcy Bias." How to split an atom. 29 08 2010. Web. 3 Dec 2010. . Swink , David F. "Adrenaline Rushes: Can They Help Us Deal with a Real Crisis?." Threat Management. Psychology Today, January 31, 2010. Web. 3 Dec 2010. . "Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571." Wikipedia. Wikipedia the free encyclopedia, 02-12-2010. Web. 3 Dec 2010. . "Survival Stories #4: Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 Andes Rugby Team Disaster." Spike. Spike.com, 29 08 2009. Web. 4 Dec 2010. .

What factors contributed to the expansion of the Barnwell area from a small village in 1801 to a busy suburb of Cambridge by 1901?

* At the end of the eighteenth century Cambridge was suffering a significative diminuish of the population. We can notice this by looking at the statistics provided. Meanwhile in 1674 the population exceeded 9000, by 1728 Cambridge's population was under 8000. There were many reasons that could explain this sudden fall in population. One of them was the problem of overcrowding, and the repercussions that overcrowding causes. Possible consequences of this factor could have been: poor hygenical conditions ( lack of clean water for everyone, or excessive amounts of sewage which were hard to get rid of), lack of employment places for everyone, and also very high prices on the property market. This latter problem is strictly related with the expansion issue in Cambridge, which we will explore further on. Another factor which contributed to the fall in population towards the beginning of 1700, was the attraction that cities in the north exercised: this was the period of time in which the Industrial Revolution was fluorishing. In cities such as Manchester or Leeds ( typical northern cities), there was great possibility for employment, in the newly born industries. We will now analyze in more detail the expansion issue in Cambridge. The city of Cambridge was expanding at a very fast rate, but the space available for settlement was running short. The need for expansion claimed by the University, restricted the residential areas to delimiting and unpleasent territories. Cambridge was surrounded by land liable to flood, which was the main factor that stopped the centre of town and the residential areas from expanding. Cambridge was also surrounded by open fields, which seemed to be the only possible area in which the town could expand. These open fields, and areas surrounding the town, were mainly owned by the rich. This left the poor with the worst areas, both for settlement and agricolture. This unfair situation was overcome with the aid of the Enclosure acts, which were put in practice in 1802.. This movement entitled every land owner to a fair amount of land. For this goal to be made possible, the available land had to be divided into small strips which could be equally shared between everyone. By 1811 with the Enclosure award, the land surrounding Cambridge had finally been completely redistributed. Now that everyone had the same amount of land, the profit coming from the land would have been fairly regular, and there wouldn't be so much (disnivel) between the rich owners and the poor owners. The arrival of the Enclosure award had in a way slowed down the the fast rate at which the population was diminuishing. * The city of Cambridge had been various Ecclesiastical Parishes spread around throughout the town. Generally each area had its own Parish. During the century going from 1801 to 1901 we notice a fast rise in the population of certain Parishes, and especially the Parish of St. Andrew The Less, which was allocated in the Barnwell area (1 mile away from the city centre). The Enclosure Award in 1811, generally incremented the population of every Parish. The population gradually grew in certain Parishes, and although St. Andrew The Less had always seemed to grow at a faster rate than everother Parish, it wasn't only until 1845 and the following years that its population enourmously grew to reach a final peak of 27860 people. This population rise of this can be noticed when analysing the graph I developed. In other. We don't notice straight away in 1845 the rise in population because it takes time for settlement but in 20 years time from the statistics it is clear that rise in population is reaching its maximum peak. 1845 was the year in which the Railway was built in Cambridge, and this was a very important factor which contributed to the rise in population of this Parish. This is because the Railway was constructed in the Barnwell area. We will analyze further the reasons of such importance of the Railway, including an explanation of the ubication of this new medium of transport. For now we will only mention the where the people that populated the Parish came from. They were mainly traders, that had previously been using as a medium of trade the river and moved to the Barnwell area to make use of this new revolutionary transport which could have benefitted their business, and students and labourers from other towns that decided to move to Cambridge. The railway was faster and therefore a better value for money. As we notice from our statistics and our graph, St. Andrew The Less wasn't the only Parish in which we encountered a rise in population. Other Parishes that were situated near the river side, encountered a substantial rise in population. Not as dramatic as the one in the Parish of St. Andrew The Less, but significantly larger than the ones in Parishes ubicated in other parts of the town. An example could be the Parish of St. Andrew The Great. This Parish, as we can see from fig. ( map of Cambridge during the middle ages), is situated next to the River Cam, close to the place where once the fortress of Castle Hill was built. The reason there was a rise in population in the Parishes next to the riverside, is because some people were conservative regarding their means of transport. Many people still retained the river the best mean of transport for trading their goods. Although travelling through the river was slow, now that most of the population had moved next to the Railway, it would have been much faster to travel. Also with the diminuishing of people making use of the River Cam for their trading business, the taxes on transport through the River had fallen. Generally, using th river as a mean of transport now, had two advantages: travelling became much faster, and also cheaper. This can be seen from fig. 4 ( The River Cam toll receipts). We notice that gradually, from 1845 the tolls fell to eventually reach the value of 367 i per annum. Having said this, the Railway still remained the most popular mean of transport.

Othello as a Tragic Hero

Shakespeare uses techniques, characters, language, structure and form to present Othello as tragic hero. He exposes his tragic flaw, which consequently leads to his downfall. Othello conforms to the Aristotelian principles of tragedy, of the noble protagonist who undergoes ceaseless manipulation and endures suffering, resulting in his ultimate downfall due to hamartia. All of these techniques combine to provide a different perception of the protagonist, as more of an atypical victim, exposed to the harsh reality of the society he longs to fit into, rather than a typical hero. A tragic hero is a person who initially is well-respected and holds a high esteem within society. They are of high moral worth and are highly ambitious in what they set out to achieve. A single mistake or character flaw can, however, bring them to ruin, with a loss of everything that they possess. In the discussion of whether Othello fits the role of a tragic hero, the following concepts need to be considered. Firstly, as befitting a tragic hero, Othello holds an important role. He is well-respected and admired by all. Secondly, through a character flaw and the added complication of external forces working against him, he suffers a dramatic fall from grace. He loses all that he held dear- his wife, his status, his position, and the respect held by others of him. The tragic hero comes up against a force or events which serve to bring this fatal flaw to the surface. In Hamlet, it is his indecision which comes to the surface as a result of his mother's ‘o'er hasty' remarriage. It is interpreted that Othello’s fatal flaw is in fact jealously. But jealousy is not an emotion or state of being that can exist on its own. It requires other things to feed it and n Othello’s case this is insecurity. Othello is in fact set in an extremely racist period and this does cause him to feel insecure and vulnerable, which renders him more open to Iago's manipulation. Iago does not pray on Othello’s jealousy, he prays on his insecurity and uses Othello's race and colour to place Othello in a bad light. In Othello, it is the force of Iago's ruthless manipulation and accusations against Desdemona and Cassio which bring Othello's gullibility to the surface. Hamartia is a very important aspect of the play and Shakespeare uses it to better the audiences understanding of the events that are unfolding. Othello is oblivious to the fact that Iago is taking advantage of his fatal flaw of jealousy. â€Å"Oh beware jealousy: it is the green-eyed which doth mock that which meet it, feed on. The cuckold lies in bliss†. This quote from Iago proves that he knows Othello more than Othello knows himself, and so, takes advantage of his personal flaw, using it to his own, deadly advantage. Despite Othello’s actions, there is a lesson to be learnt and the audience are compelled to maintain some feeling of sympathy towards him. The sympathy of the audience towards Othello’s character is largely due to his lack of understanding of the unforseen evils in the world around him. These evils are personified by Iago. Othello's nobility, morals, values and ideals, all play a part in the unravelling of his personality. Iago who’s equivocal but evil deception and manipulation of Othello's emotions presents the audience with a strong-willed but fragile character. Othello appears ill-equipped to understand a character such as Iago, and this gains the audiences sympathy. If we are to accept that a tragic hero is one that possesses the image of valour, nobility and honour, but in weakness cannot contain the manipulation of those mannerisms, then in the end we must come to the conclusion that he is indeed a tragic hero. Othello as a Tragic Hero Othello is character created by Shakespeare that â€Å"fulfils the conditions and requirements of a tragic hero (Bhattacharyya 123). † This is for the reason that Othello’s character exhibits what Aristotle refers to as the tragic flaw that ultimately caused his downfall. Just like any other classic tragic hero, he has innate flaws despite being a seemingly virtuous character in the eyes of his fellows. Somehow, despite the perfection that the character displays, he possesses a weakness that is so inevitable that eventually consumes him and causes evil to others and the character himself.In Shakespeare’s plays, â€Å"the strengths that raise the characters to the noblest heights become the points of vulnerability that lower them to the most profound depths (Cahn 325). † Background of Othello Othello is a tragedy that is written by Shakespeare right after Hamlet. While there are palpable similarities that are noticed of the two plays such as resemblances in style, diction, and versification, Othello can stand on its own as one of the best tragic plays that Shakespeare has been known for despite the fact that Hamlet remains the most famous.The heroes of the play are so unlike but still exhibit characteristics that would qualify them into Aristotle’s definition of the tragic hero. The general character of a man that is â€Å"exceptionally noble and trustful† but has to â€Å"endure the shock of disillusionment† is employed by Shakespeare first in Hamlet and then to Othello. This is what makes these dramas along with King Lear and Timon regrouped together as having distinctions to the rest of the tragedies of Shakespeare.However, despite these similarities, Othello is the first tragic hero created by Shakespeare that is not only an exceptional man but also a huge man living a small world that made him tower over his fellows. More than this, the peculiarity of Othello is that it leaves the most painful and the most te rrible impression of all the plays of Shakespeare (Bradley 175-176. ) It is a story of death and of betrayal that originally sprung from jealousy and false beliefs. Othello is a Moor that has secretly married Desdemona, the daughter of Senator Brabantio.He is described as a benevolent and noble military man while her wife is one the most pure and innocent characters in Shakespeare’s plays. Moreover, Othello is also known to be having a strong belief in religion and a man of good judgment. However, despite these positive attributes imbued upon him by Shakespeare, he also created a character that will surely uncover the tragic flaw that is within Othello. Iago has always displayed tendencies of being a villain but Othello remained to be trustful of him. His naivetà © and innocence triggered Iago to plot evil plans against him.Upon the evil plans of Iago, he was persuaded to kill his own wife for the belief that she was being disloyal to their marriage. These evil plans of Iago commenced when he got jealous of Michael Cassio’s appointment as a Lieutenant instead of himself. Because Othello was the one who appointed him, he started feeling a deep grudge against him. He then plotted on making Othello’s life miserable with regards his marriage and his status as a Moor. He succeeded in making Othello believed that Desdemona is having intimate relationship with Cassio.Iago took advantage of Othello’s trusting nature for him to accomplish his plans. Othello mercilessly killed his wife in the bedchamber despite her pleadings and claims of innocence and purity. He has been blinded by jealousy and false belief that Iago has implanted in his mind. In the end, he has learned that his actions were nothing but surges of anger, jealousy, impulsiveness, and false judgment. In the end, he was convinced of his wife’s innocence through the testimonials of Emilia, Lodovico, and Roderigo. He then admitted his sins and decided to take away his life .Before he killed himself, he beseeched the remaining people to listen to him speak. His last speech reminisces his heroism in the state. He also desires to be remembered as someone who loves not wisely but someone who loves too well (Bhattacharyya 31). Aristotle’s Tragic Hero and Tragic Flaw in Othello Poetics by Aristotle is the best source with regards the structure, purpose, and effect of the Greek tragedy. In the words of Aristotle, a tragic hero is: [O]ne should not show worthy men passing from good fortune from good fortune to bad†¦. Nor again wicked people [mochtherous] passing from bad fortune to good †¦.Nor again the passing of a thoroughly bad man [poneron] from good fortune to bad fortune †¦. There remains then the mean between these [ho metaxy]. This is the sort of man who is not pre-eminently virtuous and just [ho mete arà ªte diapheron kasi dikaiosyne], and yet it is through no badness or villainy of his own that he falls into the misfortune, bu t rather through some flaw in him (qtd in Goodkin 39). According to him, a tragic hero is primarily a character of noble stature and greatness. This means that the character occupies a high position in the society he is living in.Moreover, he should also exhibit nobility and virtue (Defining Tragedy). In the case of Othello, his character is that of a high ranking official in the military. Apart from this, he is also highly respected by the people of the state. He has gone to many wars and came back victorious. He is an epitome of a benevolent soldier that deserved his position as a Moor in the Venetian State. Aside from being blessed with a noble stature in the society, he is also happily married to Desdemona, the daughter of the Senator which has also an equal high standing in the society.Second, though a tragic hero is portrayed as great, he can never be perfect. Just like any other living being, he has his own flaws despite having an elevated position in the society that mere mo rtals can never identify (Defining Tragedy). In the case of Othello, his naivety and his trusting nature are recognized to be his flaws that bring about the tragic flaw in his character that ultimately lead to his downfall. These particular characteristics that Othello possesses were the ones taken advantage by Iago to make his plans prosper. Iago has always been consistently portrayed as a villain.As a matter of fact, there are several instances that would hint Othello of his evil intents and backstabbing such as in the case where he conspired with Roderigo in his pursuit for the love of Desdemona. Even when he displayed character of dishonesty, Othello was too innocent and naà ¯ve to distrust everything that he says, recommends, or suggests. Until it came to a point that he was too blinded to think and decide for himself and was already persuaded by Iago’s evil intentions. Furthermore, because of his inability to discern the truth from fallacy, he murdered his wife without having any appropriate reason to do it.Because of him being overtly consumed by jealousy and false belief that his wife cheated on him, he committed the worse sin he ever had. This murder furthermore leads to his suicide, his final downfall. Third, the tragic hero’s downfall is attributed to his own actions and intentions. It can never be ascribed to accident, fate, or in any other external reasons. Furthermore, the tragedy that will happen to the character will be triggered by his own personal error, whether it is in judgment, in action, or in his inaction. This is now what Aristotle calls the tragic flaw which is the very reason of his fall (Defining Tragedy).According to Cahn, a tragic flaw is a â€Å"fatal weakness or error in judgment that propels a character to a tragic end (325). † In the case of Othello, his fatal weakness causes his error in judgment. We will notice that these would form a series of events that will lead to the character’s downfall. At the onset, his naivety and innocence as discussed in the earlier paragraph made him so gullible. This gullibility and vulnerability then made it easy for Iago to deceive him of believing that Desdemona has adulterous relationship with Cassio. This deception is followed by jealousy that blinded Othello.He then was too consumed with jealousy that he was unable to neither investigate nor evaluate the facts of the events. Once he had decided to revenge his honor and his bruised ego, he then committed a crime that will also cause him his life. The death of Desdemona woke his senses. With the realization that he has committed such a fatal sin, his regret once again consumed him that lead to him taking his life Fourth, the hero’s fall would not be â€Å"wholly deserved. † Somehow, the punishment that the character has is excessive of what should he have as a consequence of his tragic flaw (Defining Tragedy).In the case of Othello, the death of Desdemona is more than a punish ment for his gullibility and naivety. More so, his death is an excessive penalty for his fatal weakness. Fifth, the fall leaves the tragic hero some awareness and self-knowledge (Defining Tragedy). In the case of Othello, the death of Desdemona not only made him regret but also to get back to his senses. He decided to find out the truth by extracting testimonials from Imilia and Lodovico. Most importantly, he recognized the innocence of Desdemona.He died knowing that up to her death she remained faithful to him. Lastly, while the tragedy would arouse pity, fear, and other unhealthy emotions, it does not leave its audience depressed. Especially in a Shakespearean tragedy, the audience wouldn’t feel that the hero is a â€Å"poor mean creature. † Even when the character leads a tragic and wretched end such as death, he still remains to be hero to the eyes of the audience. This is for the reason that the phase that he underwent is a fact that is pardonable for a hero to co mmit. His greatness remains even with his downfall.

Moral psychology Essay

The articles in this special section express a common theme: the use of information technology in society is creating a rather unique set of ethical issues that requires the making of new moral choices on the part of society and has spawned special implications for its members. Technology itself is not the only, nor necessarily the most responsible, cause of these issues. All ethical questions arise initially out of human agency. Technology, due to its capability to augment mental and physical powers of human beings, does stand in the role of a coconspirator. The lure of power-enhancing capabilities makes technology an inducer of sorts, a necessary but not sufficient underpinning to many of the ethical issues we face today. An ethical issue is said to arise whenever one party in pursuit of its goals engages in behavior that materially affects the ability of another party to pursue its goals. When the effect is helpful—good, right, just—we say the behavior is praiseworthy or exemplary. When, however, the effect is harmful— bad, wrong, unjust—the behavior is unethical. This purposeful theory of ethics is reflected in the issues discussed in these articles. For example, email and being online are applications of information technology, the lure of which is based on their ability to expand the scope, range, speed, and ease of interpersonal and corporate communications. Useful as they are, the schemes and the manifold of issues addressed leave one question unanswered: What moral guidance can be provided to the agents whose behavior create these issues? And, this question leads to others: How should the many knowledge workers, systems analysts, programmers, hardware designers, authors, executives, and so forth, who set in motion the actions which bring these issues to the fore, guide their own behavior? Knowing their technology-based actions will intercede in the course of human affairs, how should they direct them? The crucial point occurs when a moral agent—one that by definition has choices—decides to change the state of information or information technology in a human system. Changes in hardware, software, information content, information flow, knowledge-based jobs, and the rules and regulations affecting information are among the many things agents do that affect others. I call these crucial juncture points moments-of-truth. If those of us who make decisions in any of these areas are to behave ethically, we must be able to identify the significant momentsof-truth in which we participate and be able to reflect on the effects of our actions. We must use our moral imagination to guide our choices so that we can contribute positively toward making the kind of ethical world in which we want to live and want to bequeath to our future generations. How can we do this? The ACM Code of Ethics [1], as well as the schemes and other articles in this special section provide initial grist for the mill. More fundamental, however, is our conscience, aided by our understanding and expertise in information technology. If we have an inkling our behavior as information professionals might in some way harm others, we probably should examine our decisions a little more carefully and from an ethical point-of-view. Getting the Morally Relevant Facts The facts of an ethical situation can be summarized by four factors. The first factor is to clearly identify the moral agent. Whose actions will bring about the technology-induced change? The frameworks and discussions presented here will be helpful because they point to a variety of possible forms of agency. The next factor is the set of alternative courses-ofCOMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM. December 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 55 action available to the agent. These are the realworld acts that will have an effect on the human system under consideration. Acts have consequences, hence the third factor: a delineation of the results that are expected to occur if each act is taken. Finally, it is essential to identify the stakeholders who will be affected by the consequences of the acts. A stakeholder is any individual, group, organization, or institution that can affect as well as be affected by an agent’s actions. In a word, stakeholders have an interest in what an agent does [3]. These four factors—agent, acts, results and stakeholders—are the basic facts from which an ethical analysis proceeds. Applying Ethical Theories Renowned medical ethicist William F. May refers to the method of ethical reflection as corrective vision. â€Å"Ethics supplies a type of corrective lens,† he observes, â€Å"and relies heavily on the distinction between what is and what ought to be† [4]. These four crucial factors serve to establish what is. For what ought to be we must turn to ethical theories. These theories are the prisms—the optometrist’s collection of lenses—through which we can observe reality and see the choices to make as we attempt to direct reality towards our ethical ideals. There are many, perhaps an infinity, of theories we might apply. The optics of ethics is very large indeed. We can be comforted in this effort, however, by the realization that the evolution of ethical thinking has resulted in four major themes. These are meta-lenses through which to look at an ethical situation. One theory emphasizes an agent’s duty. This theory seeks to create a good society by having people do the right things. As Immanuel Kant emphasized, there are prohibitions against taking some acts and obligations to take others. We have a prima facie or a priori duty, for example, to respect the autonomy of others according to one principle evolving out of this theory; any acts an agent might take that would invade a stakeholder’s privacy or right to choose for themselves should be avoided. More specifically, it is reasonable to assume members have a prima facie duty to adhere to the provisions of the ACM Code of Ethics. But, and this is a significant point, we may not always be obliged to do so. Subsequent theorists in this deontological vain, W. D. Ross in particular [5], have held that while these duties are compelling they are not definitive. When two or more duties come into conflict the agent must make a reasoned choice. For example, the advantages obtained from using email may be deemed to be more important than the exposure to loss of privacy it brings about. These moral losses, however, should be made explicit in making a moral choice. The same principle applies, as we will see, among theories themselves. The second great tradition is the pursuit of happiness. Applying this theory requires that we assess the consequences of the agent’s actions and deter56 December 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM mine how much pleasure or pain, good or bad, happiness or unhappiness, benefits or costs they inflict on stakeholders. The guiding principle, which originates with Bentham and Mill, is that an agent should choose an act resulting in the greatest good for the greatest number. The good society is reached according to this theory by doing good for others. However, since what is good for the collective-at-large may not be good for a given individual (or may violate a basic duty or right), advice emanating from this consequentialist tradition may conflict with advice deriving from other theories. A third great tradition is the pursuit of virtue. This theory focuses on improving the character or traits of the agent. The ancient Greeks averred that a moral person should take acts that enable and enhance the agent’s courage, prudence, temperance and justice. Their predecessors focused on accumulating individual power. â€Å"Might is right† formed the basis of their concept of virtue. One of their successors, St. Thomas Acquinas, drew on the Pauline tradition to add the more spiritual virtues of faith, hope and charity to the list. And, in the industrial age, industry, honesty, and trustworthiness were added because they were necessary for commercial relationships. All of these virtueoriented guides have the effect of creating a good society by having each agent be a good person. Finally, there is the tradition of the pursuit of justice. Justice requires that every stakeholder in the system should enjoy, so far as possible, an equal opportunity to develop his or her knowledge, skills and talents, and to reach his or her potentialities. This comes from fair dealing and right action and is usually based on rules that society has made, rules that should be the same for all and applied equally. The rules are based on criteria such as merit, need, work or other agreed-upon standards. The social contract theories to which several of the authors refer have emerged as a part of this tradition. The good society according to theories of justice is achieved by doing fairly, both in the fair allocation of privileges, duties, and goods, and in the meting out of punishments. When facing a moment-of-truth, one is well advised to view the situation through each of these ethical lenses. Each provides insight into the moral complexity of the issue being examined. Frequently, however, the guidance deriving from one of these theories will conflict with that of one or more of the others. This requires a moral judgment, one that shows how one theory or principle trumps another. The reasons behind the choice made should be grounded in at least one moral theory and justified accordingly. The pitting of facts against theories is a necessary —and the most important—aspect of deciding on an ethical issue. There are also four additional considerations to take into account: Who should decide? Who should benefit? How should the decision be made? And, how can the issue be prevented from arising in the future? Who Should Decide? Presumably if you are facing a moment-of-truth you are also engaged in a decision process. Should you go it alone? Often, not. Before an agent acts he or she should take into account the answers to two questions: 1) Which other stakeholders ought to participate in the making of this decision because of their knowledge, their values, or their interests? The voices of future generations should always be considered in this determination as well as the voices of contemporaries. 2) Which other stakeholders must take part in the decision and its implementation because of their institutional jobs, responsibilities or the resources they control? As debates on the basis of a â€Å"just war† have concluded, a decision that does not carry legitimacy or a reasonable probability of success is unlikely to lead to a satisfactorily moral outcome. Who Should Benefit from the Decision? Many stakeholders may be affected by a decision. Some of these outcomes should have been considered during the application of ethical theories to the situation at hand. Nevertheless, before enacting a choice one should assure himself or herself the benefits of the decision flow to morally justifiable parties and that no undue harm is done. How Should the Decision be Made and Carried Out? From a stakeholder’s point-of-view a decision cannot be separated from the way it is made and delivered. Whenever possible, important moral decisions should be made as the result of due process. Beyond any legal requirements, the processes by which decisions are made should be fair and they should follow established procedures when applicable. It is essential the parties who are potentially harmed by decisions, as well as those who are benefited, recognize the legitimacy of the decision-making process. This, however, is not enough. Decisions should be carried out in a humane, moral way. During the trumping process just described, some ethical principles or dictates are relegated to a secondary position. But they do not go away. A decision should be framed and fulfilled in a manner which maximizes the accomplishment of all of the ethical principles identified. All decisions should be carried out with due respect, in the sense that they should preserve the dignity of all stakeholders involved to the extent possible. How Can the Issue be Prevented from Arising in the Future? Every decision becomes a precedent in the future. A decision that resolves an acute and pressing moral issue today may not look so good in light of the passage of time. It may create worse problems than the ones it solves. Or, our moral reflection may reveal flaws in our institutions that can be—perhaps, should be—changed so the ethical issue at hand does not emerge again, at least in the same degree of intensity or severity. Thus, procedures and processes should be put in place, eliminating the root causes of this issue or handling it more effectively in the future. The essential question: In making this ethical decision, what sort of social transcript do we want to write? The last four considerations have a common thread: To be ethical, a decision-maker must think beyond just the facts and theories pertinent to the current issue. One must reach beyond the present and be sure to bring in additional voices, insure that ethical procedures are employed, adopt a humane style of conduct, and look to the future. Moving Ahead The articles in this issue form a rather gritty as well as a cerebral basis for getting on with the task of creating a good society in our information age. The ethics of being online, using tools such as email, and infusing of information technology into our lives in areas ranging from business process reengineering to installing large-scale systems are, arguably, among the most important ethical issues of our time. As good citizens in this information age we must be able to identify the crucial moments-of-truth in which our behavior as information professionals shapes the direction our society will take. By understanding the facts of each case, drawing on ethical traditions for guidance, and doing this with a concern for the broader implications of our actions, we can create the kind of ethical society we want. This is the challenge of our times [2]. C References 1. Anderson, R. E. , Johnson, D. G. , Gotterbarn, D. and Perrolle, J. Using the new ACM code of ethics in decision-making. Commun. ACM 36, 2 (Feb. 1993), pp 98–107 2. Mason, R. O. , Mason, F. M. , and Culnan, M. J. Ethics of Information Management. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif. , 1995. 3. Mason, R. O. and Mitroff, I. Challenging Strategic Planning Assumptions. Wiley, New York, 1981. 4. May, W. F. The Physician’s Covenant. Westminster Press, Philadelphia, 1983. 5. Ross, W. D. Moral Duties. Macmillan, London, 1969. Richard O. Mason is Carr P. Collins Professor of Management Information Sciences at the Edwin L. Cox School of Business, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex. Parts of this article are based on material originally developed for Mason, R. , Mason, F. , and Culnan, M. Ethics of Information Management. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif. , 1995. Permission to make digital/hard copy of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage, the copyright notice, the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of ACM, Inc. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists requires prior specific permission and/or a fee.  © ACM 0002-0782/95/1200 $3. 50 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM December 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 57.